How can I get Docker Linux container information from within the container itself?

Unless overridden, the hostname seems to be the short container id in Docker 1.12

root@d2258e6dec11:/project# cat /etc/hostname
d2258e6dec11

Externally

$ docker ps -a
CONTAINER ID        IMAGE               COMMAND             CREATED                 STATUS                      PORTS               NAMES
d2258e6dec11        300518d26271        "bash"              5 minutes ago       

$ docker -v
Docker version 1.12.0, build 8eab29e, experimental

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