What do the *-dev packages in the Linux package repositories actually contain?

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The *-dev packages most often contain the headers related to a library’s interface. Next most common are package-config files (*.pc) describing build options and staticly linked libraries.

In general, if you want to know the contents of a package you have installed, dpkg -L pkgname will get you that. The apt-file program can tell you the same for any package in the repositories.

Note, also, that the answers by William Pursell and caf contain useful additional details. If you find their input helpful, do upvote it.

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